Table 5 Phytochemical activities and toxicity of medicinal plants used for skin diseases
From: An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used to treat skin diseases in northern Pakistan
S/No | Family / Scientific name / coll. # | Phytochemicals | Toxicity |
|---|---|---|---|
1. | Acanthaceae Justicia adhatoda L. LI 58 | Alkaloids, phenolic, flavonoids and sterols [129] | Less toxicity [130] |
2. | Amaryllidaceae Allium cepa L. LI 6 | Alkaloids, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, terpene, steroids and resins [131] | None |
3. | Amaryllidaceae Allium sativum L LI 7 | Saponin, steroids, tannins, carbohydrates and cardiac glycosides [132] | Excessive use cause toxicity like acute toxicity, burning sensation in the mouth and gastrointestinal tract, nausea, diarrhea, vomiting [133] |
4. | Apiaceae Anethum graveolens L. LI 10 | Essential oils, fatty oil, proteins, carbohydrates, fiber and ash [134] | Nontoxic [135] |
5. | Apiaceae Coriandrum sativum L. LI 33 | Alkaloids, carbohydrates, volatile oil, tannins, and flavonoids [136] | Acute and sub chronic toxicity [137] |
6. | Apiaceae Ferula foetida (Bunge) Regel. LI 47 | Terpenoids, Sulfide derivatives, volatile Oil and Phenols [138] | Little toxicity including (including lung metastasis) [139] |
7. | Apiaceae Pleurospermum brunonis Benth. ex C.B.Clarke LI 80 | None | None |
8. | Apocynaceae Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand. LI 24 | Cardenolides, flavonoids, and saponins [132] . | Highly toxic [140] |
9. | Apocynaceae Carissa spinarum L. Haines LI 22 | Alkaloids, tannin, glycoside, steroids and carbohydrates [141] | Acute toxicity (Shamim, 2014) |
10. | Apocynaceae Rauvolfia serpentina L. LI 84 | Phenolic acids and flavonoids [142] | None |
11. | Asteraceae Anaphalis margaritacea (L.) Benth. & Hook.f. LI8 | Flavonoids, polyacetylenes, and hydroxylactone [143] | |
12. | Asteraceae Artemisia vulgaris L. LI 12 | Carbohydrate, saponins, phytosterol, proteins, amino acid, tannin & phenolic compounds and flavonoids [144] | Genotoxicity [145] |
13. | Asteraceae Gerbera gossypina (Royle) Beauverd LI 50 | None | Less toxicity [139] |
14. | Asteraceae Gnaphalium affine D.Don LI 51 | Flavonoids, sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, Triterpenes and phytosterols [146] | Damage oxidative compounds and produce various toxic compound that are harmful for humans [139] |
15. | Asteraceae Launaea nudicaulis (L.) Hook.f. LI 60/ | Flavonoids, anthocynadins and flavanones [147] | Nontoxic [148] |
16. | Asteraceae Saussurea lappa (Decne.) Sch.Bip. LI 93 | Alkaloids, glycosides, phenolics, steroids and terpenoids [149] | Acute toxicity [150] |
17. | Asteraceae Senecio chrysanthemoides DC LI 94 | Triterpene, emodins,polyphenol, reducing sugar and anthocyanosides [151] | Hepatotoxicity [150] |
18. | Asteraceae Sonchus asper (L.) Hill LI 96 | Ascorbic acid, carotenoids and fatty acids [152] | Acute toxicity [153] |
19. | Asteraceae Taraxacum officinale aggr. F.H. Wigg. LI 99 | phenolic compounds, flavonoid glycosides [154] | Acute toxicity [155] |
20. | Asteraceae Tussilago farfara L. LI 103 | Terpenes, flavonoids, and alkaloids [156] | Acute toxicity [157] |
21. | Balsaminaceae Impatien edgeworthii Hook. f LI 54 | Flavonoids, sugars, alkaloids and saponins [158] | Cytotoxicity [159] |
22. | Berberidaceae Berberis lycium Royle LI 15 | ß-sitosterol, 4,4-dimethylhexadeca-3-ol, Butyl-3-hydroxypropyl phthalate, Butyl-3-hydroxypropyl phthalate and 4-methyl-7-hydroxycoumarin [160] | Acute toxicity and oral toxicity [158] |
23. | Boraginaceae Hackelia americana (A.Gray) Fernald LI 52 | Phenols, saponins, and flavonoids [161] | Hepatotoxicity [162] |
24. | Boraginaceae Onosma hispida Wall. ex G. LI 71 | Flavonoid, amines, iridoids and sesquiterpene [163] | Acute toxicity [164] |
25. | Brassicaceae Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. LI 20 | 2,6-dichlorophenol indophenol and HEPES 4-(2-Hydroxyethyl)-1- piperazine-ethane-sulphonic acid [165] | Poisonous [166] |
26. | Buxaceae Buxus papillosa C.K. Schneid. LI 21 | Cyclobuxupaline-C (IV)(+)-cyclopapilosine-D (VII) and (+)-buxamine-C [167] | Nonpoisonous [168] |
27. | Cannabaceae Cannabis sativa L LI 26 | Alkaloids, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, resins, terpins and steroids [169]. | High doses cause inhibition of hepatic drug and decreased fertilization capacity [170] |
28. | Capparaceae Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew. LI 27 | alkaloids, phenols, sterols and glycosides [171] | Acute toxicity [172] |
29. | Caprifoliaceae Valeriana jatamansi Jones ex Roxb. LI 105 | Phenols, flavonoids and tannins [173] | Fumigant toxicity [174] |
30. | Caryophyllaceae Cerastium fontanum subsp. vulgare (Hartm.) Greuter & Burdet, LI 29 | None | None |
31. | Commelinaceae Commelina benghalensis L LI 32 | Terpenoids, saponins, tannins, flavonoids, steroids, phenolic compounds, alkaloids and cardiac glycosides [175] | Acute and sub-acute toxicity, male reproductive toxicity [176] |
32. | Convolvulaceae Cuscta reflexa Roxb. LI 35 | Flavonoids and tannins [177] | Oral toxicity [178] |
33. | Cucurbitaceae Cucumis melo L. LI 36 | Alkaloids, terpenoids, carbohydrate, proteins, flavonoids, phytosterols [179] | Metal toxicity [180] |
34. | Cucurbitaceae Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl. LI 59 | Protein, carbohydrates, Flavonoid and saponin [181] | Gastrointestinal toxicity [182] |
35. | Cucurbitaceae Momordica charantia L. LI 67 | Alkaloid, glycoside, aglycone, tannin, sterol, phenol, protein and carbohydrate [183] | Hepatotoxicity [184] |
36. | Cupressaceae Juniperus communis L. LI 56 | Steroids, alkaloids, phenolics, flavonoids, tannins and terpenoids [185] | Nephrotoxicity [186] |
37. | Cupressaceae Juniperus excelsa M. Bieb. LI 57 | Alkaloids,flavonoids, phenols, saponins and diterpenes [187] | Cytotoxicity [188] |
38. | Cyperaceae Cyperus difformis L LI 38 | Flavonoids, coumarins, tannins and sterols [189] | Fumigent toxicité [190](Chang et al., 2012) |
39. | Elaeagnaceae Hippophae rhamnoides L. LI 53 | Phenol, Quercetin and Catechin [191] | Non toxic [192] |
40. | Equisetaceae Equisetum arvense L. LI 43 | Flavonoids, alkaloids, minerals, phenolic petrosins, triterpenoids, saponins, phytosterols [193] | Acute and metal toxicity [194] |
41. | Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia helioscopia L. LI 44 | Reducing sugars, terpenoids, alkaloids, steroids, tannins, flavanoids and phenolic compounds [195] | Cytotoxicity [196] |
42. | Fabaceae Butea monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze LI 14 | Sterols, triterpenes, glycosides flavonoids and proteins [197]. | Acute and oral toxicity [198] |
43. | Fabaceae Delbergia sissoo L. LI 41 | Proteins, phyto sterols, tannins, starch, flavonoids and tannins [199]. | Acute toxicity [200] |
44. | Fabaceae Pisum sativum L. LI 77 | Tannins, terpenoides, alkaloids and flavonoids [201] | Cadmium toxicity in human [202] |
45. | Fabaceae Trigonella foenum-graecum L LI 102 | Alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, and phenols [203] | Acute toxicity [204] |
46. | Gentianaceae Swertia abyssinica Hochst. LI 97 | None | Hepatic toxicity [205] |
47. | Lamiaceae Ajuga integrifolia Buch-Ham-ex D. Don LI 5 | Essential oil [206] | Body weakness [205] |
48. | Lamiaceae Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) LI 55 | Alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids, oils, terpenoids, saponins, tannins and anthraquinones [207] | Cytotoxicity [159] |
49. | Lamiaceae Micromeria biflora (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) Benth LI 66 | None | Membrane toxicity of cell [184] |
50. | Lamiaceae Nepeta hindostana (B.Heyne ex Roth) Haines. LI 68 | None | Mycotoxin [208] |
51. | Lamiaceae Rydingia limbata (Benth.) Scheen & V.A. Albert LI 90 | None | Cytotoxicity [209] |
52. | Lamiaceae Salvia moorcroftiana wall. ex Benth LI 92 | Flavonoids, diterpenoids and sterols [210] | Nontoxic inhibitor [211] |
53. | Lamiaceae Teucrium stocksianum Boiss. LI 101 | Alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, saponins, steroid, reducing sugar, terpenoid, anthraquinone, phlobatannin and glycoside [212] | Acute toxicity [213] |
54. | Loranthaceae Loranthus pulverulentus Wall LI 62 | Triterpenoids, alkaloids, carbohydrates, flavanoids, proteins, tannins and glycosides [214] | Low toxicity [148] |
55. | Lythraceae Lawsonia inermis L. LI 61 | Glycosides, phytosterol, steroids, saponins, and tannins [215] | Highly toxic [148] |
56. | Malvaceae Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench LI 1 | Carbohydrate, gums and mucilages, proteins, phytosterols, flavonoids, tannins, phenolic Compounds and volatile oil (Saha et al., 2011). | No toxic effect [216] |
57. | Meliaceae Melia azadarach L. LI 65 | Alkaloids, Tannins, Saponins, Phenols [217] | Toxic [218] |
58. | Myrsinaceae Myrsine africana L. LI 63/ | Saponins, tannins, flavonoids, amino acids, steroids and reducing sugar [219] | Acute toxicity [148] |
59. | Nitrariaceae Peganum harmala L. LI 72 | Alkaloids, flavonoids and anthraquinones [220] | Cytotoxicity [221] |
60. | Nyctaginaceae Boerrehavia diffusa L. LI 19/ | 1,1-diphenyl picrylhydrazyl, phenolic, flavonoid and ascorbic acid [222] | Acute toxicity [223] |
61. | Oleaceae Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (Wall. & G.Don) Cif LI 70 | Flavonoids, terpenes [224] | Low toxicity [164] |
62. | Papaveraceae Corydalis govaniana Wall. LI 34 | Alkaloids [225] | Acute toxicity (Mukhopadhyay et al., 1987) |
63. | Phytolaceae Phytolacea letsenia L. LI 73 | None | |
64. | Pinaceae Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don). LI 28 | Tannins, flavanoids, alkaloids, and terpenoids [226] | Cytotoxicity [172] |
65. | Pinaceae Pinus roxburgii Sarg LI 75/ | Flavonoids and terpenoids [227] | Acute toxicity [228] |
66. | Pinaceae Pinus wallichiana A.B. Jacks. LI 76 | Flavonoid and phenolic [229] | Toxic [228] |
67. | Plantaginaceae Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle. ex Benth. LI 74 | Sterols, glycosides and phenolic compounds [230] | Cytotoxicity [231] |
68. | Plantaginaceae Plantago major L. LI 78 | Alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, quinones, terpenes, lignans, tannins, polysaccharides, steroidal glycoside, thiosulfinates, proanthocyanidin and proteins [232] | Less toxicity [233] |
69. | Plantaginaceae Plantago lanceolata L. LI 79 | Anthraquinone, Glycosides and alkaloids [234] | Not toxic [235] |
70. | Poaceae Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. LI 37 | Alkaloids, anthroquinone, flavonoids, saponins, steriods, tannins and triterpenoid [190] | Fungal growth, biomass toxicity [236] |
71. | Polygonaceae Fagopyrum acutatum (Lehm.) Mansf. ex K.Hammer LI 45 | Protein, carbohydrates, fat and rutin [237] | Hepatotoxicity [238] |
72. | Polygonaceae Polygonum nepalense Meissn. LI 81 | None | Toxic [239] |
73. | Polygonaceae Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. LI 87 | Tannins, anthraquinones, amino acids flavonoids and carbohydrates [240] | Non toxic in cell [241] |
74. | Polygonaceae Rumex dissectus H. Lév. LI 88 | B-carotene linoleic acid, has antioxidant activity [242] | Less toxic [243] |
75. | Polygonaceae Rumex dentatus L. LI 89 | Alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids and tannins [244] | Toxic [174] |
76. | Polygonaceae Fagopyrum tataricum (L.) Gaertn. LI 46 | Flavonoids [245] | Cytotoxicity [246] |
77. | Primulaceae Androsace rotundifolia Lehm. ex Roem. & Schult. LI 9 | None | Less toxic [247] |
78. | Pteridaceae Adiantum venustum D. Don LI 4 | Adininaneone, adininaonol and Norhopan [248] | Nontoxic (Huxley et al., 1992) |
79. | Ranunculaceae Aconitum chasmanthum Stapf ex Holmes LI 2 | Alkaloids, benzoylmecasonine and mesaconitine [249] | Some species are highly poisonous [250] |
80. | Ranunculaceae Aconitum delphinifolium DC. LI 3 | Alkaloids, benzoylmecasonine and mesaconitine [249] | Slightly poisonous when used in access [250] |
81. | Ranunculaceae Aquilegia pubiflora Wall. ex Royle LI 13 | None | Nontoxic [251] |
82. | Ranunculaceae Caltha alba Cambess LI 25/ | Alkaloides, flavonoids, glycosides and triterpenoides [252] | Acute toxicity, cytotoxicity [216] |
83. | Ranunculaceae Nigella sativa L. LI 69 | Flavonoid glycosides quercetin and kaempferol 3-glucosyl [253] | Hepatotoxicity [254] |
84. | Rhamnaceae Colubrina oppositifolia Brongn. ex H. Mann LI 23 | None | |
85. | Rosaceae Malus pumila Mill. LI 64 | Triterpenoids and flavonoids [255] | Hepatotoxic [148] |
86. | Rosaceae Prunus armeniaca L. LI 82 | Carbohydrates, phenolic compounds and organic acids [256] | Acute and renal toxicity [257] |
87. | Rosaceae Prunus persica (L.) Batsch LI 83 | Phenolics, anthocyanins and flavonoids [258] | Toxic side effects [259] |
88. | Rosaceae Rosa chinensis Jacq LI 85 | None | None |
89. | Rosaceae Rubus abchaziensis Sudre LI 86 | Diterpene glycosides, phenolic glycoside and Lignan glycoside [260] | Cytotoxicity and mitochondrial toxicity [261] |
90. | Rubiaceae Galium abaujense Borbás LI 48 | None | None |
91. | Rubiaceae Gallium aparine L. LI 49 | None | None |
92. | Rutaceae Zanthoxylum armatum DC LI 11 | Limonene,linalool,neral [262] | Cytotoxic and Phytotoxic potential [263] |
93. | Rutaceae Citrus medica L. LI 30 | Carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids and flavonoids [264] | Estrogenic effect [265] |
94. | Rutaceae Citrus sinensis L. LI 31 | tannin, alkaloid, saponin, flavonoid, steroid, tripertenes [266] | Fumigant toxicity [267] |
95. | Salicaceae Salix babylonica L. LI 91 | Phenolics and saponins [268] | Cytotoxicity [269] |
96. | Sapindaceae Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq LI 42 | Carbohydrates, flavonoids, proteins, amino acids, saponins, steroids, sterols, tannins, and triterpenoids [270] | Acute toxicity [271] |
97. | Saxifragaceae Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb LI 16 | Alkaloids, carbohydrates, cardiac glycosides, saponins, phenols, flavonoids and diterpenes [272]. | Acute toxicity [273] |
98. | Saxifragaceae Bergenia ligulata Engl. LI 17 | Bergenin, catechin, gallicin and gallic acid [274] | Radical toxicity in renal epithelial cell [275] |
99. | Saxifragaceae Bergenia stracheyi Hook.f. & Thomson) Engl LI 18 | Bergenin 2. Tannic acid 3. Gallic acid 4. Stigmesterol 5. β-Sitosterol 6. catechin 7 [276] | Acute toxicity [277] |
100. | Scrophulariaceae Verbascum thapsus L. LI 106 | Methanolic extract has antiviral activity against the pseudorabies virus [278] | Toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids [279] |
101. | Solanaceae Datura stramonium L. LI 40 | Saponins, tannins, alkaloids and glycosides [280] | Poison and hallucinogen [281] |
102. | Solanaceae Solanum virginianum L. LI 95 | None | Cytotoxicity [282] |
103. | Tamaricaceae Tamarix aphylla (L.) H. Karst. LI 98 | Flavonoids, alkaloids and tannins [283] | Less toxic [284] |
104. | Taxaceae Taxus wallichiana Zucc. LI 100 | Diterpenoids, lignans, flavonoids, steroids and sugar derivatives [285] | Hepatotoxicity [286] |
105. | Thymelaeaceae Daphne mucronata S Royle LI 39 | Coumarins, flavonoids, triterpenoids, lignin, glucosides, daphnine and umbelliferone [287] | Leaf extract is highly toxic [287] |
106. | Urticaceae Urtica dioica L. LI 104 | Phytosterols, saponins, flavanoids, tannins, hydrolysable tannins, phenolic compounds, proteins and amino acids [288] | Nontoxic [289] |