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Table 3 Characteristics of studies
| Author | Participants’ country of origin | Sample size | Target groups | Prevalence of TM use | Specific types of TMs used | Characteristics of users | Maternal conditions treated by TM/ reasons of use | Source of information or providers | Disclosure of TM use to health care providers | Study design/data collection method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Banda et al., 2007 [26] | Zambia | 1128 | Pregnant women | 21% | NR | - Users are not different from non- users in terms of age, education, ethnicity or income - women who knew anyone who had used TM during pregnancy were more likely to use TM - Women who thought that the use of TM may hurt their baby were less likely to use TM - Women who reported accessing traditional medical care were only half as likely to adhere to HIV drugs | NR | NR | 64% of users did not want to share their use of TM to health care providers | Quantitative/Interviewer administered questionnaire |
| Bayisa et al., 2014 [27] | Ethiopia | 250 | Pregnant women | 50.4% | Herbal medicine (garlic, ginger, eucalypt, ruta rue) | - Age, educational status, marriage, ethnicity and source of information were not associated with TM use - About 70% of users were pregnant women on their first trimester | For treatment of nausea, morning sickness, vomiting, cough, nutritional deficiency | Neighbors, family, health professionals, traditional healers | NR | Quantitative/ semi-structured questionnaire |
| Duru et al., 2016 [28] | Nigeria | 500 | Pregnant women and nursing mothers | 36.8% | Herbal medicine (bitter leaf, palm kernel, bitter kola, neem leaves, garlic, jute leaves, ginger | - Pregnant women aged 20–30 years were frequent users (41%) - Married women were eight times more likely to use TM than unmarried women - Women with no formal education reported the highest use (85.7%) compared to tertiary education achievers (18.8%) - Better income favored use of TM - Gestational period, parity, ethnicity and occupation did not impacted on the use of TM | NR | NR | NR | Quantitative/ semi-structured interview administered questionnaire |
| Elkhoudri et al., 2016 [29] | Morocco | 181 | Mothers who gave birth in the last 5 years preceding the study | 42% | Herbal medicine (vervain, cresson, madder, fenugreek, cinnamon, ginger) | - Illiterate women have used TM more frequently - Multiparous women were more likely to use TM than first time mothers | To get back in shape after delivery, facilitate child birth, vomiting, increase breast milk secretion | NR | NR | Quantitative/ interviewer administered questionnaire |
| Fakeye et al.,2009 [30] | Nigeria | 595 | Pregnant women | 67.5 | Herbal medicine (detail is not reported) | - Age, geographical zones and educational status were strongly associated with TM use (detail description of age category and education level were not reported) | Users perceived better effectiveness to TM than conventional medicine, cultural beliefs to TM, better accessibility, lower cost and other reasons were reported | Local herb sellers, herbalists | 56.6% of participants did not support combining with herbs with medications | Quantitative/ structured questionnaire |
| Kaadaaga et al., 2014 [31] | Uganda | 260 | Women with fertilization problem | 76.2 | Herbal medicine (detail is not reported) | - Married women with infertility problem were more likely to use TM - women who did not conceived before were more likely to use TM Women with infertility for less than 3 years were more likely to use TM | Treatment of infertility | NR | 63.8% of users did not disclose TM use to their physicians | Quantitative/interviewer administered structured questionnaire |
| Lalego et al., 2016 [32] | Ethipiopia | 363 | Pregnant women | 73.1 | Herbal medicine (ginger, garlic, eucalyptus, ruta rue, ocimumlamifolium, garden cress | - being on first trimester, less education and having less knowledge about TM favored use of TM | Management of nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, cold, fever | Parents/relatives, neighbor, herbalists | NR | Quantitative/ interviewer administered structured questionnaire |
| Mabina et al., 1997 [33] | South Africa | 577 | Pregnant women | 43.7 | Herbal medicine | - Those having knowledge about herbal medicine and on second trimester were frequent users of TM | NR | Parents, relatives, TBA, herbalist, friends | NR | Quantitative/ questionnaire |
| Mbura et al., 1985 [42] | Tanzania | Pregnant women | 42% | Herbal medicine | - Prevalence of TM use among pregnant women from the rural and urban areas has no difference Pregnant women on their first trimester were frequent users - Muslims were frequent users of TM compared to Christians | To treat pregnancy related symptoms, to assist labor | NR | NR | Quantitative/ interview administered questionnaire | |
| Mothupi and Carol 2014 [7] | Kenya | 333 | Mothers who gave birth in the past 9 months before the study | 12% | Herbal medicine (detail was not provided) | - Women with no formal education were more likely to use TM - Women who live far from health facilities (>10 km) were frequent users | To treat swollen feet, back pain, digestive problems. High cost, inaccessibility and distance of health facilities resort respondents to TM use | Family, friends, open markets, herbal clinics | Only 12.5% of user disclosed use of TM to their doctors. About 51% of users reported use of combined herbs with pharmaceutical drugs | Quantitative/ interviewer administered questionnaire |
| Mugomeri et al., 2015 [34] | Lesotho | 72 | Pregnant women | 47.2 | Herbal medicine (detail was not reported) | - 50% of users were on the second trimester - Women’s age, marital status, literacy and parity were not associated with use of TM | Prevention of abortion, prevention of placenta praevia, promotion of fetal growth, edema, spiritual cleansing and relief of pain | Grandmothers, mothers-in-law, TH, TBA | NR | Quantitative/ semi-structured questionnaire |
| Mureye et al., 2012 [35] | Zimbabwe | 248 | Pregnant women | 52% | TM (holy water, soil burrowed by moles, elephant dung, cocktails of unknown herbs, lubricants and others | - Being in the age range of 20–25, nulliparity and nulligravidity predicted frequent use of TM - Most users were on their third trimester | To prevent perineal tearing, placenta retention, breech presentation, postpartum hemorrhage, prolonged labor and preeclampsia | NR | NR | Quantitative/ interviewer administered questionnaire |
| Nergard et al., 2015 [36] | Mali | 209 | Pregnant women and mothers | 79.9% | Herbal medicine (Lippia chevalieri, combretum micranthum and others) | - Socio-demographic characteristics were not associated with use of herbal medicines - Frequent use of herbal medicines was reported during the first trimester | For general wellbeing, as dietary supplements, to treat edema, urinary tract infection, and tiredness | NR | Pregnant women used herbal preparation without any supervision from care providers | Quantitative/ interviewer administered questionnaire |
| Nyeko et al., 2016 [37] | Uganda | 383 | Pregnant women | 20% | Herbal medicine (detail wan not reported) | - Women who used herbal medicine in the past were eight times more likely to use during the current pregnancy - Distance more than 5 km to health facilities was associated with increased herbal medicine use | To treat waist pain, fever, nausea and vomiting. For induction of labor and difficulty in accessing health facilities. | NR | 90% of users did not disclose to their health care providers | Mixed method / questionnaire survey and FGDs |
| Orief et al., 2014 [38] | Egypt | 300 | Pregnant women | 27.3 | Herbal medicine (Aniseed, fenugreek, ginger, garlic, green tea and peppermint) | - Statistically significant difference was found regarding the age, gravidity, parity and BMI among the pregnant women who used herbal medicines (details were not reported) | To treat abdominal colic during pregnancy, nausea and vomiting and headache | Friends, family, physician | NR | Quantitative/ questionnaire survey |
| Rasch et al., 2014 [39] | Tanzania | 125 | Women who had unsafe abortion | 43% | Herbal medicine (Bidens pilosa, rubia cordifolia, ocimum suave and others) | - 22% of users ingested medicinal plants orally to induce abortion - 13% of users inserted plant specimens virginally to induce abortion - socio-demographic characteristics of users were not reported | To induce abortion | NR | NR | Quantitative/ interviewer administered questionnaire |
| Sarmiento et al., 2016 [40] | Nigeria | 5686 | Pregnant women in the past 2 years | 24.1% | NR | - Socioeconomic factors were not associated with use of TM | To assist childbirth | NR | NR | Quantitative/ interviewer administered questionnaire |
| Tamuno et al., 2011 [41] | Nigeria | 500 | Pregnant women | 31.4% | Herbal medicine (ginger, garlic | - Women with no formal education were more likely to use TM - Low socio-economic status was significantly associated with TM use | NR | NR | Over 40% of women reported combined use of herbs and drugs | Quantitative/ self-administered questionnaire |
| Naidu 2014 [43] | South Africa | 21 | women who were either pregnant or women who had had children | NA | Isihlambezo (Herbal decoction used by many Zulu women in South Africa as a preventative health tonic during pregnancy) | Women’s have a strong cultural belief to Isihlambezo to prevent health problems during pregnancy | NA | NA | NR | Qualitative/ interview |
| Kooi and Theobald 2006 [8] | South Africa | 27 | kgaba (contains different herbal medicines to prevent physical problems and the perceived harm that evil spirits can cause during pregnancy) | The use of kgaba as perceived by the women is an important component in the experience of pregnancy and labour | NA | NA | communication about the use of kgaba between pregnant women and health staff was poor | Qualitative/interview |
