Fig. 3

Concentrations of acetic, butyric, propionic, and valeric acids and the total concentrations of SCFAs in feces of untreated and loperamide-treated rats. Bars represent the mean ± SD (n = 6). Different letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) among the groups, based on the Tukey’s test. SCFA, short-chain fatty acid; NOR, normal group; CON, constipation control group; L-CE, constipation plus low-dose CE group (3% CE added to drinking water); H-CE, constipation plus high-dose CE group (6% CE added to drinking water)