Table 3 Behavioral data collected at all time points. Total testing duration 2*60 minutes, without the fMRI tests and judgements/ratings. It comprises testing of all main EF components using mainly the WISC: Wechsler intelligence scale for children–5th Edition [89] and the KiTAP: Test of Attentional Performance for children [92]

Music abilities

Rhythm perception

Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation (IMMA)

Pattern comparison, judge if same or different in rhythm

RIGHT button for identical patterns, LEFT for different patterns

[87, 88]

Visuo-spatial abilities

1. Visuo-spatial reasoning & praxis

2. Problem solving

Cubes test (WISC-V)

Arranging physical pictured cubes in specific patterns according to a design

[89]

Working memory (fMRI)

Auditory tonal working memory

Pattern comparison (inspired by IMMA)

Compare two 3-note sinus tone patterns

1. Low load condition (3 identical notes): RIGHT button for identical patterns, LEFT for different patterns

2. High load condition (3 different notes): RIGHT button for identical patterns, LEFT for different patterns

Adapted from [87, 88]

Visual-spatial working memory

Visual n-back

6-case spatial matrix containing appealing monster figures - conditions: 0-back, 2-back

Right button for matched n-back trial l, LEFT button for unmatched n-back trial

[93]

Memory Systems

Short-term memory

Digit Span Forward (WISC-V)

Repeating series of digit sequences of increasing length aloud

[89]

Working memory: information manipulation

Digit Span Backward (WISC-V)

Repeating series of digit sequences of increasing length aloud backwards

[89]

Attention

Processing speed

"The Witch" (KiTAP)

Specific key for witch presented in window – respond as quickly and correctly as possible

[92]

Selective and sustained attention

Ucancellation (child-friendly version of d2 test)

Respond to upright dog (tail left), upside-down monkey (tail right) - Ignore similar distractors

[94, 95]

Auditory selective attention

Speech in noise perception

International Matrix Test

Participants repeat 5-word sentences heard through headphones: first without, then with a white noise background (right ear – left ear – both ears)

[90]

Inhibition

Response inhibition (motor inhibition)

Go/NoGo – "The Bat" (KiTAP)

Specific key for bat only - Ignore cat

[92]

Distractor inhibition (perceptual/cognitive inhibition)

Child-friendly Flanker Task

Left/Right arrow for center fish swimming direction - ignore surrounding fishes (congruent vs. in- congruent swimming direction), as quickly and correctly as possible

[96]

Cognitive control / flexibility (higher EF)

Perceptual switching (simple)

"The dragons' house" (KiTAP)

Match button press to dragon color as quickly and correctly as possible – 2 alternating colors

[92]

Rule switching (complex)

Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS)

Sort cards based on changing rules (color, shape), separately and mixed, as quickly and correctly as possible

[97]

Reasoning (higher EF)

Abstract/logical

Matrix reasoning (WISC-V)

Inspect incomplete matrix – choose missing piece from 5 options

[89]

Quantitative/analogical

Figure weight (WISC-V)

Inspect scale with missing weight – select balance option within time limit

[89]

Reasoning

Daily life functioning

Executive functions

BRIEF questionnaire

Daily living assessment of children’s executive functions

[98, 99]

Learning and progress

N/A

Multi-media materials

1. Videos (orchestra) – rating on ≠ Likert scales by independent judges

2. Photos and videos (visual arts) – rating on ≠ Likert scales by independent judges

Learning and progress

N/A

Teacher ratings (Likert scales)

Music: 1. pitch; 2. rhythm; 3. expression; 4. ensemble playing/singing; 5. motivation; 6. overall quality

Visual Arts: 1. graphic skill; 2. color management; 3. expression; 4. originality; 5. motivation; 6. overall quality

N/A

Homework

Use an online app to track homework

Others / Miscellaneous

N/A

Aerobic fitness

School gymnastic teachers report aerobic fitness on Likert scale

N/A

Demographic questionnaire

Questionnaire for parents (extensive, including extracurricular activities)

N/A

Academic results

Collection of all school grades

Emotion regulation

Emotion Regulation Checklist

French Version (ERC-vf)

French version of questionnaire concerning children; 24 questions on a 4-point Likert scale measuring 2 factors: emotion regulation & emotional lability

[85]

Emotion Regulation Questionnaire for Children & Adolescents (ERQ-CA)

French version of questionnaire for children (self-report); 20 questions on a 5-point Likert scale measuring 2 strategies: cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression

[100]

Behavioral and emotional problems

Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ_Fra)

French version of questionnaire concerning children; 25 questions on a 3-point Likert scale measuring 3 factors: internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and prosocial tendencies

[84]